Is There Any Culture That Overtly Frowns Upon Women Wearing Makeup?

Perceptions Of Female Beauty

In The 20th Century

past Louise Wood

The 20th century has seen a huge upsurge in the importance placed by Western gild on physical beauty, particularly for women. The fashion, cosmetics and plastic surgery industries have thrived on 20th century preoccupation with concrete appearance. It is a preoccupation that affects women in every sphere, whether they choose to brownnose to it or non. This essay examines female person beauty in the 20th century in terms of popular culture, in particular manner, cinema and advertising. before exploring these areas, I intend to deal briefly with basic definitions of beauty. The main body of the essay will then be concerned with an overview of each decade's particular accept in female beauty.

According to Kant, the judgement of dazzler is different from cognitive or moral sentence because it is effected subjectively, that is, exclusively in reference to the person making the judgement. For a judgement to be truly "artful", rather than simply idiosyncratic, the person making the judgement must be determined that their opinion be consensus. "A person who describes something equally beautiful insists that everyone ought to give the object in question his approval and follow suit." Plato, one of the earliest philosophers to concern himself with dazzler, divers it as a "property intrinsic in objects" which could be measured in "purity, integrity, harmony and perfection."

Definitions of beauty in the 20th century, when referring to human concrete beauty, are near e'er constructed in terms of outward appearance and sexual attractiveness. Nancy Baker'south definition is The Dazzler Trap is more concerned with intangible personal qualities. "A truly cute woman makes the all-time of her physical avails but, more importantly, she also radiates a personal quality which is attractive." In Beauty In History, Arthur Marwick defines a human concrete beauty in more straight terms: "The beautiful are those who are immediately exciting to almost all of the opposite sex."

For the first two decades of the 20th century, many of the attitudes towards beauty associated with the 19th century remained. In Victorian guild, it was considered a woman's duty to make herself beautiful. In the early on 20th century, this was coupled with the idea of "self-presentation" as enjoyable, expressive and creative. Nonetheless, some of the more bizarre and painful "beauty aids" of the Victorian age continued to be marketed well into the 1920s. A particularly unpleasant case is "M.Trielty's Nose Shaper", described equally a "metal object ... held over the nose past straps buckled round the head and adapted with screws."

One of the principal elements of this century'southward perception of dazzler that sets information technology apart from the 19th century is the polarity of cosmetics. In the last century, cosmetics were frowned upon in society as the marker of a prostitute. The cosmetics industry grew from the roots of the manufacturing of theatre make-upward by Helena Rubenstein and Max Factor, who adjusted their products for everyday utilise.

From puberty onwards, young girls use cosmetics in order to look older an attract older boys. Conversely, their mothers use cosmetics in order to disguise the flaws of age and maintain a youthful appearance. That is not to say that the cosmetics boom does not take its adversaries: many feminists believe the marketing of cosmetics, along with loftier fashion, to be an exploitation of women by male industry moguls. Some women resent having to apply cosmetics in club to compete in the workforce. Just for many women, the cosmetics ritual is not a job or a necessary evil, but an enjoyable activity in itself. It is not purely for the benefit of men that women wear cosmetics, but for themselves and each other.

The cosmetics and manner industries are interdependent with the medium of advertising. Cynthia White points out that the turnabout in opinions on cosmetics is women's magazines in the 1920s coincided with the increase of cosmetics advertising in the same publications. Advertising is ofttimes presumed to have little cultural value, but is a powerful mode in which attitudes towards women and beauty are reinforced. The 20th century fascination with celebrities is a tool expertly used in the advertising industry. If a cute model, or more effectively a cute celebrity is used in an advertisement, the qualities associated with that person are transferred onto the product.

Another major influence on this century's attitudes towards beauty was the growth of the pic industry. For the first half of the century, all the major beauty icons were movie actresses. Information technology was a medium that immune women who would have previously been overlooked to smooth. For case, the 19th century disfavor to redheads was even so in identify every bit tardily every bit the 20s. It was that black-and-white medium that allowed Clara Bow to exist the exception. However, stars such every bit Bette Davis and Katherine Turner who could not be described as "conventionally beautiful" invariably came from middle or upper class backgrounds. Beauty was an essential attribute for a working class adult female to become successful in Hollywood. This period was as well the offset of the ties betwixt the pic and fashion industries, which would keep for decades to come.

Upwardly to the 1910s, the "Gibson Girl", invented past Charles Dana Gibson in the 1890s, was still considered to be the ideal of femininity. The Victorian ideal of "the chaste and delicate woman" continued to be embodied in the class of childlike, virginal film stars such as Lillian Gish and Mary Pickford. A more typical 20th century contrast was provided by Theda Bara, who was perpetually cast in the role of the Vamp.

By the second decade of the century, fashion was losing its Victorian thrift, and giving way to soft, draping, Oriental-inspired fabrics. Notwithstanding, corsets were still worn, and the mode for long, narrow skirts prompted the popularity of the "hobble garter", a device worn effectually the calves to terminate women from taking long strides and splitting their skirts.

One reason given by Fred East. H. Schroeder, quoted in Women In Popular Civilization, for the standing popularity of long skirts was the bulky menstrual cloths worn by women until the advent of disposable feminine hygiene products in the 20s.

1920s fashion placed more than importance on "natural endowment" than any time in the preceding centuries. although cosmetics were worn to conceal natural flaws, their master part was to draw attention to women'due south natural features. Skirts became shorter than they had maybe ever been, just in contradiction to the atmosphere of freedom in style, feminine curves became unfashionable. Women wore "flatteners" to minimise their busts, and waistlines were lowered to hip level. The ubiquitous bobbed hairstyles of the 20s were originally cut in hairdresser shops. When barbers failed to meet the demands of fashionable young things, beauty shops sprang upwards everywhere. the new technique of permanent waving was immensely popular: American women spent $250m on perms alone during the 1920s.

The icons of the 1920s were represented, again exclusively in the cinema, by the up-front end sexuality of Jean Harlow, Clara Bow and Mae West, together with the "mysterious androgyny" of Greta Garbo and Marlene Dietrich. The theme of androgyny was to exist continually repeated throughout the century, particularly in the 60s and 80s.

The Production Lawmaking enforced on Hollywood films in the 1930s put an finish to the sexual content of the films of the 20s, withal tame, including a ban on miscegenation. Although sexuality was played down, the change in content meant that roles for women became more realistic, resulting in the rise of "wholesome" stars such as Katherine Hepburn and Jean Arthur. 1930s fashion favoured alpine women with broad shoulders and narrow hips, a blazon exemplified past Greta Garbo. Hem-lines dropped and waistlines returned to their normal position, and the "erogenous zone" shifted from legs to the dorsum, coinciding with the increasing popularity of sunbathing.

World War II brought strict controls on clothing production for the following decade. The principal 1940s look was a practical and masculine way ("the Utility Lines") with padded shoulders and knee joint-length hem-lines. Shortage of materials for stockings led to the popularity of trousers for women. In the late 40s, as a reaction to wartime austerity, Christian Dior launched the "New Look", with corseted waists, padded hips and billowing skirts, using far more fabric than most women'due south rations would permit. Despite its exclusive nature, Dior's await revolutionised fashion and influenced the return to overt femininity in the next decade. The cinema connected its influence throughout the war years; icons of the 40s were as diverse as Vivien Leigh, Joan Crawford, Bette Davis and Rosalind Russell.

Fashion in the 50s was divided between the sophisticated Chanel/Dior finish of the scale, and the newly invented teenage style. The archetypal 50s teenage girl wore tight sweaters, pointed bras and round skirts, with tight trousers and Crackpot blackness becoming de rigeur for both sexes. Particularly in America, there was an emphasis on conformity and "flaw concealment" self-presentation. This was especially true for blackness women, who were encouraged to expect as white equally possible by straightening their hair and lightening their skin.

Iii of the major picture stars of the 50s, Marilyn Monroe, Jayne Mansfield and Kim Novak, were blonde and extremely curvaceous, harking dorsum to the overt sexuality of the 1920s stars. Contrast was provided by the overtly not-sexual Doris Mean solar day. The changing sexual climate meant that Marilyn Monroe was able to turn the discovery of nude photos, taken before her rise to fame, to her reward. This would not have been possible 10 years previously. In contrast to Monroe, Grace Kelly realised every little girl's dream of becoming a princess, and embodied a demure composure that made her a role model for socialites worldwide. It is interesting to annotation that the 1950s too saw the introduction of both the Barbie doll and Playboy magazine.

The 1960s was a decade of tremendous importance with regard to the late 20th century perception of beauty. The idea of beauty every bit a "status characteristic" on an equal ground with wealth and social position has its roots in the 60s. This is summed upwards by pic director Michaelangelo Antonioni'due south description of his stars (eastward.thou. David Hemmings and Vanessa Redgrave in Blow-up): "They are the heroes of the age, they take invented the new canons of dazzler." French and Italian film actresses replaced Hollywood stars every bit the chichi role models, and mode models rivalled film stars as the professional "beautiful people." Due to the increasing focus on sexuality of the decade, immature people abandoned rules of fashion which decreed modesty and concealed the imperfections of older people. The nearly obvious example of this is the mini-brim, invented by Mary Quant in 1964.

The obvious bamboozlement of the 50s gave manner to a more than "natural" approach to personal appearance. Nonetheless, the celebrated natural look was no less contrived than its 50s counterpart. In The Truth About Modelling, Jean Shrimpton talks about spending 40 minutes applying her "natural look" make-up. Shrimpton, along with Twiggy, epitomised a new kind of beauty icon, the model-every bit-superstar. Twiggy was naturally thin, but most women had to struggle to accomplish the same await. Cosmetic surgery became increasingly popular in the modelling industry, with removal of the back teeth and lower ribs becoming common operations.

In the tardily 60s and early 70s there was a marked subtract in the presence of female person picture palace stars. But this era besides saw the beginning of rebellion against "imposed ideas of feminine beauty". Individuality was expressed in customised dress and the indigenous look. In the early on 70s, the futurism of the 60s gave way to nostalgia. Long hair and flared trousers were compulsory for both sexes, and mini skirts were replaced by hot pants and ankle-length maxi-skirts. The popularity of platform soles in the mid-70s resulted in thousands of sprained ankles in the proper name of way, a performance that was repeated two decades later on by the daughters of 70s style victims.

The belatedly 70s saw the abolitionism of flared trousers and long hair nether the influence of punk. A watered-down version of the punk aesthetic, combined with the influence of Japanese designers such every bit Kenzo and Miyake was to be the fashion template for the post-obit decade. The health and fitness nail also has an enormous influence on 80s manner, producing leotards, ra-ra skirts, leggings and tracksuits. The popularity of careerism and power-dressing in the 80s saw women adopting the wearing apparel codes of men in the workplace. The 80s equivalent to Grace Kelly was Princess Diana, who was even more than demure, more sophisticated and more emulated than her 50s counterpart.

Towards the terminate of the 80s, the underwear-as-outerwear look popularised by Madonna, Cher and Kylie Minogue found its style into mainstream fashion, where it would remain well into the 90s. Madonna symbolised the archetypal 80s woman: undeniably sexual and feminine, yet successful and in command. Kylie, on the other hand, had to drop her girl-next-door image and transform herself into "sexual activity-Kylie" before becoming a bona-fide icon.

The 20th century's unbreakable link between beauty and success was consolidated in the 80s. This phenomenon was illustrated in a survey published in the Journal Of Applied Social Psychology in 1983. Participants were asked to match up women of varying degrees of attractiveness with jobs that they deemed suitable. Not only did attractive people receive a more positive response, just recommendations for their salaries were college.

Although female curves enjoyed something of a comeback in the 80s, the obsession with fettle reinforced the sparse-is-cute mythology. This culminated in the early 90s, with the underweight "waif" look, epitomised by Kate Moss, at the meridian of its popularity. Arthur Marwick states in Beauty In History that "annihilation which ... draws attending to mortality is very definitely non beautiful." This does not take into account the 1990s fascination with underweight models and "junkie chichi". Even so, at that place is a marked deviation between the body types of women who announced in fashion magazines and those who announced in men's publication and pornography. Equally Kathy Myers points out in Looking On: "There is an overall tendency to market `fleshier' women to men and thinner, sometimes sexually androgynous images of women to female audiences."

By 90s standards Marilyn Monroe, the archetypal beauty icon of the 1950s, would be considered fatty. Even so the average size of women in Europe and America had risen sufficiently by the 1980s to prompt clothes manufacturers to change their sizing systems. At that place seems to exist a link betwixt accepted body weight and periods of prosperity. Curvaceous women were fashionable in the 1950s, when economics were notwithstanding recovering from World War II, whereas sparse women became more fashionable in the more prosperous 60s.

The popularity of cosmetic surgery among ordinary people has continued to increment within the last decade. sixty,000 people in Britain every year avail of plastic surgery, the most popular operations being breast reduction and augmentation, liposuction, wrinkle removal, chin reduction, cheekbone implants and lip augmentation. French performance creative person Orlan has turned plastic surgery into an art form by using her face up as a canvas for a portrait, using "the chin of Venus ... the brows of Mona Lisa".

The 1990s are primarily defined by their magpie-like theft of the styles and music of other decades. However, the "retro-chic" phenomenon is not a new one. I only has to await at examples such as the 1920s revival in the 60s and the 1950s revival in the 70s to realise that pop culture has ever had a penchant for nostalgia. The Victorian fascination with classical Greek and Medieval styles is an even before example.

A legacy of the punk era that will certainly help to define 90s beauty in the futurity is the widespread acceptance and popularity of body art. An edition of Aqueduct four'southward Feminism In The 90s in July 1994 featured women with tattoos and body piercings who described body art as a medium of cocky-expression and a facility for a feeling of control over their bodies. One woman pierced her nipples afterwards completing breastfeeding every bit "a symbolic human activity of taking back that part of the body they had given to their child." The transformation in the full general public'south opinion on body fine art tin can be likened to the widespread acceptance of cosmetics in the early part of the century.

To conclude, the predominant feature of dazzler in the 20th century is not the abiding modify I accept described above, but the constant importance of outward appearances in and then many women'south lives, fifty-fifty those who decline 20th century cultural norms. The escalating growth of the fashion, cosmetics and cosmetic surgery industries is a attestation to Western gild's obsession with being beautiful. And because beauty is irreversibly linked with success in the Western psyche, out obsession with physical bewitchery looks set to continue into the adjacent century and beyond.

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